Perception Of Risk Variation Factors Health And Social Care Essay

Recent old ages in societal scientific disciplines and academic research have highlighted the apprehension of constructs such as hazard perceptual experience and hazard itself, in a batch of deepness. However the true apprehension of how hazard is perceived and how its influences behavior is non a simple phenomenon to specify. There is immense contention on how, why and what variables constitute it. Risk has been defined in legion ways by societal scientists and research workers. Before reexamining the different paradigms of hazard perceptual experience it is critical to understand the really nature of the construct of hazard itself. There exist multiple constructs of Risk. Risk is viewed as a jeopardy, as a chance as a effect and even as possible hardship or menace ( Short Jr, 1984 ) .Risk under such claims is typically assessed to be objectively quantified by hazard appraisal. On the other manus societal scientific disciplines reject such impression of nonsubjective word picture. T heir attack tends to concentrate on effects that such hazardous results have on people who undergo them. This tradition see ‘s hazard as subjective in nature ( Krimsky & A ; Golding, 1992 ; Slovic, 1992 ; Weber, 2001b ; Wynne, 1992 ) . , hence it defines hazard as something that human existences have invented to assist them understand and get by with the dangers and uncertainnesss of life. Admiting that hazard can intend different things to different persons ( Brun, 1994 ) , consequently people besides tend to differ in their earnestness of effects of hazards and how they calculate the chance of such hazards to take topographic point.This apprehension leads us to the term ‘risk perceptual experience ‘ , which has been defined as ‘ appraisal of the chance of a specified type of accident go oning and how concerned we are with the effects ‘ ( Sjoberg L. et Al, 2004, p. 8 ) . Individual values, beliefs and attitude every bit good as societal and cultural values or temperaments including symbols, political orientations and history constitute of factors which influence hazard perceptual experience ( Weinstein, 1980 ) .The aim of this paper is to understand the part of such societal, cultural and psychological factors which form perceptual experiences of hazard. This essay aims at discoursing hazard in context to a specified hazard which is vaccinum ha zard particular to polio. This peculiar pick has been made with consideration given to the fact that disease such as infantile paralysis is no more a job in the western states and the underdeveloped states provide a good illustration of civilization and societal influence for the sensed hazards. This has been backed by the lifting involvements by universe wellness organisation to wholly eliminate this from the face of Earth. Throughout this survey research grounds has been incorporated to organize a logical statement. In decision the deduction for policy shapers and other interest holders are discussed in line with the acknowledgment of the changing perceptual experience of his hazards. Polio has been known to distribute via the unwritten faecal path. The West had popularly seen summer eruptions of infantile paralysis. These resulted in widespread paralytic infantile paralysis. There are two basic types of infantile paralysis vaccinum, both of which were developed in the 1950 ‘s.The foremost was developed by Jonas Salk, which was a formalin-killed readying of normal wild type infantile paralysis virus. This virus is known to turn in monkey kidney cells and the vaccinum is given by injection. The vaccinum aims at arousing good humoral ( IgG ) unsusceptibility and forestalling transit of the virus to the nerve cells where it would otherwise do paralytic infantile paralysis. The 2nd known vaccinum was developed by Albert Sabin, which is a unrecorded attenuated vaccinum, produced through empirical observation by consecutive transition of the virus in cell civilization. It is given orally and is known as the preferable vaccinum in the developed universe such as Uni ted States, United Kingdom and others mostly because of it easiness of disposal. ( Jeffrey Kluger, 2005 ) Vaccines have been used to control morbidity and mortality from childhood infective diseases in our society ( Senier, L. , 2005 ) .It is non incorrect to state that vaccinums constitute one of the biggest success narratives within preventative medical specialty nevertheless at that place has been a turning concern sing the necessity of its uninterrupted usage ( Senier, L. , 2005 ) ( Bostrom A. , 1997 ) .Physicians and research workers attribute such concerns in instance of infantile paralysis vaccinum mostly to the diminution in mark diseases but besides attribute it towards the turning concern for safety among the multitudes ( Senier, L. , 2005 ) .Such uncertainnesss sing vaccinum hazards along with the still prevalence of such diseases in society create a demand for understanding how perceptual experiences sing infantile paralysis vaccinum hazard are developed among people. The undermentioned subdivision purposes at supplying an overview of different prospective in order to underst and how perceptual experiences are developed and influenced. Perceived badness of a disease drama an of import portion in credence of vaccinums developed to extinguish them ( Bostrom A. , 1997 ) . A comparative survey of two diseases outburst conducted in Canada illustrates that during an eruption of a fatal, meningitis the populace reverted to mass immunisation comparable to a rubeolas outburst, where a by and large less credence of immunisation prevailed based on the populace ‘s position of rubeolas as being less unsafe.While in world Measle kill a larger graduated table of kids across the Earth ( Boholm, A. , 1998 ) . Fear is a clear illustration of what we think about a hazard in footings of our intuitive feelings, a procedure which is called the heuristic consequence and it has a great influence on our perceptual experience of risks.Amoung the current infantile paralysis bing states such frights are of a bigger magnitude given their societal and cultural backgrounds. There exists a large spread of societal consciousness every bit go od as instruction in these states. Poverty, deficiency of basic lodging installations, clean H2O and air, and other ailments have helped to organize the attitudes and perceptual experience about polio vaccinum hazards ( Sjoberg L. et Al, 2004 ) .. Another component which influences the perceptual experience of hazard associated with infantile paralysis vaccinums is the degree of control over kids ‘s going infected of vaccinum preventable disease.Works of ( Meszaros et al, 1996 ) shows that none inoculators understand that their kid was less likely effected by the inauspicious affects of the inoculation. This sense of control over the inauspicious effects of acquiring vaccinated strongly determines attitude towards inoculation. Another critical thing which must be noted here is the sensed cost benefit analysis done by parents.If at that place exists a sensed benefit in a specific pick, the hazard associated with that pick will look smaller than when no such benefit is perceived ) .Hence perceptual experiences on Polio Vaccine hazard will be constructed depending on how much control an single likes to exert within his life and what cost and benefits does he associates with the infantile paralysis vaccinum. Some groups of people have viewed inoculation of a kid as a – physical invasion into a healthy bodyA , this has been supported with doctors ‘ penchants to â€Å" make no injury ‘ ( specially in instances where more than one injection is required. Such believes and attitudes have paved agencies to constructs such as Free-loading ( which is trusting on herd unsusceptibility and taking non to immunize ) . This is proved by the research at the Pennsylvania University which has shown that a batch of none inoculators use the free equitation logic ( Hershey et Al, 1994 ) .On the other utmost side there are besides people who make determinations sing vaccinums based on what every one else seems to be doing.This is regarded at â€Å" bandwagoning † and relates to human demand for conformance and even security which fulfills the human demand for love, belonging and even safety as defined by Maslow ( Maslow, A. , 1943 ) . The above factors fall into the class of ‘Cultural reason ‘ . Which recognizes a scope of influences including psychological, spiritual, religious, emotional and even intuitive footing as defined by ( Brun, 1994 ) ( Fischhoff B. et Al, 1993 ) ( Sjoberg L. et Al, 2004 ) . Poliomyelitis as it prevails within the underdeveloped states is besides widely influenced by the success narratives of the West. Fear factors linked with deficiency of inoculation are reduced by narratives which explain ‘how infantile paralysis has been eradicated from certain states ‘ and ‘how it has become a decreasing concern ‘ ( Jeffrey Kluger, 2005 ) . Fear encourages people to take positive preventative steps ; this has been clearly illustrated by the plants of ( Leventhal, 1980 ) who found that high fright showed greater purpose to halt smoke. Hence the perceptual experience of vaccinum hazard will change for people based on their ain frights and their ain apprehension of dangers associated to the disease. Surveies on hazard perceptual experiences have taken a deep expression at understanding the function of heuristics and prejudices.According to Slovic P. perceptual experience of hazard cognitive cutoffs form the basic for qualitative estimations of hazard ( Slovic P, 1987 ) . These are called heuristics, illustrations of such prejudices ‘ include compaction of hazard, over appraisal of rare causes of decease and underestimating common 1s ( Fischhoff B. et Al, 1993 ) . Biass are non restricted to the public entirely alternatively a large beginning of such prejudices stem which in this instance would be doctors every bit good as societal workers. Adept sentiment is besides an of import factor in formation perceptual experience sing polio vaccinum hazards. Experts within their ain field hold certain information purchase and cognition, which is non alienated from their ain prejudices. Experts sentiments are frequently manipulated to organize a perceptual experience of a hazard whic h is in line with authorities and other stakeholders ( Fischhoff B, Merz JF. , 1994 ) , ( Fischhoff B. et Al, 1993 ) , ( Freudenberg and Pastor, 1992 ) . A prevailing nature of infantile paralysis ‘s being in developing states can be understood better in footings of the unstable political governments in these states and the efforts of assorted powers to derive public support through over rated wellness programmes such as battle against infantile paralysis. Another factor which is interrelated to this construct is besides the trust factor which defines public perceptual experiences of hazard. The bigger the assurance people have in professional responsible for their protection or in the authorities or establishments responsible for their exposure of hazard the less fearful they would be. The less they would swear them, the higher will be the sensed hazard associated to them. While speaking about trust, it must be noted that grade of trust receiver topographic point in the commu nicating of information about vaccinum hazards and benefits is every bit important in organizing perceptual experiences about given hazards. Public input and well-being may be viewed as the aim of cardinal interest holders in preventative medical specialty nevertheless their actions are non ever aimed at accomplishing this hence a deficiency of credibleness and trust has been created ( Timothy C & A ; George T, 1995 ) . From the above treatment it can be deduced that a robust apprehension is needed to measure how cultural factors like trust and even duty reconstruct the cost benefit analysis ( Timothy C & A ; George T, 1995 ) .This demand for trust among persons corresponds with the emotional responses which serve a footing for determination devising as explained by Berkowitz ( 1969 ) . Another factor which develops the assorted perceptual experience people hold sing infantile paralysis hazard vaccinums is constructed by single political orientations sing social good versus the single rights. This relates to citizen ‘s rights to picks such as choice of preventative steps for wellness attention compared to authorities ‘s power/liberty to do determinations for the multitudes. Majority of the epidemiologist suggests that such determinations should non be left to single picks but should be authorities duty. Thus it can be concluded that Mandatory inoculation influences how vaccine hazards and benefits are received by the populace. This can be understood in the visible radiation of theory of cognitive disagreement which demonstrates that voluntary picks brings more openness and credence to negative results ( Berkowitz, 1969 ) .Certain people may even hold spiritual grounds to avoid inoculation, illustration of such can be the more Orthodox beliefs where step ining with nature is considered not spiritual. In US faith is one of the three evidences on which people are exempted from inoculation. This is done given the apprehension of the diversified US society. Hence it must be acknowledged that perceptual experiences of infantile paralysis vaccinum hazard are related to the societal, cultural and even spiritual facet of person ‘s life. To reason it can be seen that perceptual experiences sing infantile paralysis vaccinum hazard are constructed by assorted cultural and psychometric factors. Peoples from their positions and attitudes sing infantile paralysis vaccinum hazard based on factors such as badness of the disease, the trust they place in the authorities and other interest holders, their ain apprehension of cost and benefits associated with the vaccinum. Percepts are strongly driven and influenced by person ‘s ain fright, his abilibity to swear and his desire to command things. Peoples are risk averse and seek to avoid ambiguity ( Slovic and Fischcoff, 1984 ) .They are invariably measuring and doing opinions which are influenced by the society in big and their milieus. They are frequently encouraged to follow the bulk and sometimes to bask the free riders consequence. All these factors have deductions for parents and policymakers about how hazards should be managed and what hazards are acceptable in the visible radiation of how perceptual experiences vary and how they are constructed. It is critical for policy shapers and others to understand that contentions over vaccinum hazard perceptual experience have immense deductions for professionals and media in their functions as sources and besides on the being of this disease. When pass oning hazard to the receivers, it is highly critical that the changing natures of formation of hazard perceptual experience are kept into head along with public instruction and participative determination devising. Government in these states where infantile paralysis is still dominant need to cultivate feelings of trust in people for the system and integrate societal consciousness programmes, which have an emotional entreaty and are targeted towards the rural countries utilizing media every bit good as local physicians and clinics.

Economics Test with Multiple Choice Questions

Econ 201Name_____________________________ 1st test Sp 2012 Keith Watson 1. Economics is primarily the study of a. economists' roles in the market for stocks and bonds. `b. the problem of unlimited wants and limited resources. c. methods to eliminate scarcity. d. government programs that make the economy grow. 2. Societies in which consumers, producers, and resource suppliers determine economic outcomes are known as a. traditional economies. b. command economies. `c. market economies. d. mixed capitalistic economies. 3. The â€Å"what,† â€Å"how,† and â€Å"for whom† questions are determined by government in a. capitalistic economies. . market economies. `c. planned economies. d. traditional economies. 4. 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Which of the following is not a basic question that an economic system is supposed to determine? a. what and how many goods and services are produced b. hat quantities of each resource are used to produce each good `c. how to create a markets of buyers and sellers d. who rece ives the output after it is produced 8. Which of the following is not a resource? a. human capital b. physical capital c. labor ` d. money 9. Which of the following is the best definition of the demand for good â€Å"X†? Demand shows a. how much of X would be bought at the equilibrium price. b. how people's purchases of X rise and fall as their incomes rise and fall. `c. the amounts of X that would be bought at each and any price, assuming other factors (income, tastes, etc. ) remain constant. . how the amount of money people spend to purchase X changes as the price they must pay for it changes. 10. Which of the following is the best description of the law of demand? a. When supply increases, demand increases. `b. Price and quantity demanded are inversely related. c. When income increases, the demand for normal goods increases. d. When the price of A increases, the demand for B increases. 11. If the price of A falls, then ` a. the demand for complementary product B shifts to the right. b. the demand for inferior good B shifts to the right. c. the demand for substitute good B shifts to the right. . the demand for A shifts to the right. 12. An increase in the demand for A is caused by a. a decrease in the price of A. b. a decrease in the price of a substitute for A. c. an increase in the price of a complement for A. ` d. a decrease in income if A is an inferior good. 13. If hamburgers and French fries are complementary goods, a decrease in the price of French fries would `a. cause the demand curve for hamburgers to shift to the right. b. cause consumers to decrease the quantity of French fries demanded. c. cause the demand curve for hamburgers to shift to the left. d. ause consumers to decrease the quantity of hamburgers demanded. 14. Which of the following does not indicate an increase in the demand for good X? a. Consumers were purchasing 10 units of X at $3 per unit and now they are purchasing 12 units at $4. b. Consumers were purchasing 10 units of X at $3 per unit and now they are purchasing 10 units at $4 per unit. `c. Consumers were purchasing 10 units of X at $3 per unit and now they are purchasing 12 units at $2 per unit. d. The demand curve has shifted upward. 15. As Ms. Little's income decreased, she increased her purchases of peanut butter.We may conclude that for Ms. Little a. peanut butter is a normal good. b. her situation is an exception to the law of demand. c. peanut butter is not very scarce. `d. peanut butter is an inferior good. 16. If commodities x and y are close substitutes, a reduction in the price of x will `a. decrease the demand for y. c. increase the demand for x. b. increase the demand for y. d. decrease the demand for x. 17. Which of the following could not cause a shift in the demand curve for peas? a. An increase in consumers' incomes. b. An increase in the price of a complement. c. A large decrease in the price of a substitute. d. A decrease in the price of peas. e. A decrease in the price of green beans. 18. Which of the following is the best definition of the supply of good â€Å"X†? Supply shows a. how much of X would be offered at the equilibrium price. b. how people's productions of X rise and fall as their total costs of production rise and fall. c. how the amount of money people spend to purchase X changes as the price they must pay for it changes. `d. the amounts of X that would be offered at each and any price, assuming other factors (costs, prices of alternative products, etc. ) remain constant. 19.The law of supply suggests that `a. price and quantity supplied are directly related. b. price and quantity supplied are inversely related. c. if price rises supply falls. d. if demand increases then supply increases. 20. Which of the following does not indicate a decrease in the supply of X? `a. Producers were offering 500 units of X at a price of $5. 00 per unit and now they are offering 400 units at a price of $3. 00. b. Producers were offering 500 units at a pri ce of $5. 00 and now they are offering 400 units at a price of $6. 00. c. Producers were offering 500 units at a price of $5. 0 and now they are offering 500 units at a price of $6. 00. d. Producers were offering 500 units at a price of $5. 00 and now they are offering 400 units at a price of $5. 00. 21. Which of the following will increase the supply of X? a. an increase in the price of an input in the production of X b. unfavorable weather for producing X `c. an improvement in the technology used to produce X d. an increase in the price of X e. an increase in the demand for X 22. If producers must obtain a higher price than previously in order to produce same level of output, one can say that there has occurred: a. n increase in supply. `b. a decrease in supply. c. an increase in demand. d. a decrease in demand. 23. An increase in the supply of commodity X can be expected to be caused by: a. increases in the prices of other commodities. `b. decreases in the prices of inputs used t o produce this commodity. c. increases in the prices of inputs used to produce this commodity. d. a loss in technical knowledge. e. none of the above. 24. Price is at equilibrium if a. there is no shortage. b. there is no surplus. c. supply equals demand. `d. quantity supplied is equal to quantity demanded. 25. When price is below equilibrium, a. the quantity demanded is greater than the quantity supplied. b. the quantity supplied is greater than the quantity demanded. c. a surplus results. d. the demand is greater than the supply. 26. When price is above equilibrium, a. there is a tendency for buyers to bid the price down. `b. sellers bid the price down. c. the quantity bought is less than the quantity sold. d. the amount that consumers are willing and able to purchase is greater than the amount that producers are willing and able to sell. 27. If the demand for a product increases, then a. less will be purchased if it is an inferior good. b. rice must fall in order to sell the extr a amount desired by consumers. c. the supply increases as well. `d. both equilibrium price and quantity rise. 28. If the demand and the supply of a product both decrease, then a. both price and quantity must fall. b. price will rise but quantity remains constant. `c. quantity falls, but the change in price cannot be predicted. d. price and quantity rise. 29. When supply decreases, a. the amount sold increases, but the amount purchased remains constant. b. a surplus results when prices are flexible. `c. price rises and quantity falls. d. demand increases and price rises. 0. If you notice that the equilibrium quantity of X has remained constant over a period of time, but the equilibrium price has increased, then what do you know has happened in the market for X? `a. the demand has increased and the supply has decreased. b. the demand has decreased and the supply has increased c. both the demand and supply have increased d. both the demand and supply have decreased 31. In which of the following instances is the effect upon equilibrium price indeterminate? a. demand increases and supply does not change b. supply decreases and demand increases c. demand decreases and supply increases d. demand increases and supply increases 32. If the equilibrium price of good X falls and its equilibrium quantity rises, then we know that a. an increase in demand has occurred. b. a decrease in demand has occurred. ` c. an increase in supply has occurred. d. a decrease in supply has occurred. 33. Which of the following could make the equilibrium price and quantity of good X rise? a. a decrease in income if X is a normal good ` b. a decrease in the price of a complement for X c. a decrease in the cost of producing X d. an improvement in technology that lowers the cost of producing

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What Happened to Coca Cola Companys challenges of Coca Cola Case Study

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Letter to the Superintendent Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

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Analytical report based on an case study about IT project management Essay - 1

Analytical report based on an case study about IT project management - Essay Example Casa XXI was the resulting company with its three partners specifically created for Alvalade Stadium Complex. Casa XXI had immense experience of catering since decades. As per agreement Casa XXI got right to serve 9 avenues including Prestige, Corporate Club, Sports 21, Restaurant Casa XXI, Cafeteria, Cafà © for employees, Lodges, Kiosks, Bars and walking sales persons. Managing and exploiting revenue from these avenues was not a piece of cake and neither Casa XXI was ready to go traditional. So, Casa XXI decided to go for a new electronic system which was an important innovation. This innovative system used pre-paid cards to pay for sales. These pre-paid cards had a unique serial number which was to be identified by a scanner. The scanner could examine the card status and recharge money to the card. Interesting aspect was its expiration in which card could be used many times. The main objective of this system was to get rid of the traditional cash system which was more time consumi ng. The new innovative system could serve many customers in shorter time hence productivity was expected to be enhanced. The innovative system used a central database to save information of all cards and sales. In this innovative system when a consumer made a payment by the card, the scanners were to track card holder’s information and money in the card. After which sale was to take place or the money could be debited accordingly. The system was further subdivided into two units. First unit was operated by the front office responsible for interacting clients while back office unit was specified for inventory management whereas information of both system was recorded on an external database. So, the expected target of this innovative system was to create a well-established electronic system of payment which could revolutionize the sales at Alvalade Stadium. Casa XXI massively publicized their innovative system

BusMGT Unit3 & 4 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

BusMGT Unit3 & 4 - Assignment Example With the belief that the company can stand on its feet again, the morale returns to the employees and this will help the company get back to where it was in the long-run. To increase the profit margins of the company, the most important thing to do would be to focus the finances towards the out-dated product lines of the company. This can be done by conducting a market analysis to figure out the consumer demands and what they prefer in the product. By attending to the needs of the consumer, we are actually paving a way for higher profits in the future because we’ll be giving the consumers what they want. Moreover, by understanding the consumer demand it’ll become easier for us to redesign our product to the desired specifics and the chance of losing sales due to undesirable characteristics would be reduced. To analyse and incorporate the effects of the external environment into our organization’s business plan, it would also be beneficial to point out who our com petitors are. An in-depth research of the competitors and the products that they sell is very important because it gives us an insight into how we could give our products a USP (unique selling point) in comparison to that of the competitors. Also, the objective is not to duplicate the competition products but to manufacture good-quality products with features that give us a leg up. The best way, in my opinion to ensure success finance-wise, is to create products that are not already supplied in the market but have a high consumer demand. In order to reach this goal, the organization design will have to be rearranged in several ways. First, all the major contributors will be divided into teams, which will be assigned by the ideas of the new business plan. Next, one main objective or goal will be given to all the teams to focus on, and it will be made sure that it has all the expertise and knowledge required to efficiently achieve that goal. The team-members will assist each other in completing the goal. They will also have a set role, with the Team leaders and Managers to look over the entire process. This structure will mean that we can focus on our customers and suppliers, as they will be the force that drives the organization towards product redevelopment, changes in the hierarchy and so on. Moreover, the inter-departmental communication flow will be clearer and faster, leading to more efficient decision making for the organization. Also, meeting the needs of our consumers will provide us with a competitive edge in the market. Moreover, in order to manage the problem of the competition of internal resources, a BCG matrix analysis can be conducted to point out the stars, cash-cows, problem-child and dog products. This is essential because, it will help us manage the portfolio competently. The unprofitable products will be eliminated freeing up resources to be injected into other products that are likely to give us higher returns. For the problem of adversaria l communication faced by the organization, it is important to lessen the pressure in the organization to provide an environment that encourages open and honest communication. (Hunter, 2011) The primary role of managers in a company is to try to aim on the highest efficiency. For this

Mark&Spencer Governance Structure Essay Example for Free

MarkSpencer Governance Structure Essay Corporate Governance 1. Group Board The boards role is what management is doing, holding them accountable for performance against the targets and standards, probing and challenging their thinking to make sure that they are on the right track. The Board works closely with management in thinking through their direction and long-term plans, the opportunities, the risks and making sure we are developing the right management team for the future. The non-executives provide independent challenge and review, bringing wide experience, specific expertise and a fresh, objective perspective. As members of the Board Committees, they play a crucial role in undertaking detailed governance work with a particular focus on shareholders. GROUP STRATEGY 1. Overall Group strategy and corporate vision, setting standards and creating a high-performance culture which maximizes value creation and minimizes risk. 2. Creation, acquisition or disposal of corporate entities or assets which are material to the Group. 3. Evaluation of the Group’s competitive position and opportunities arising from the strategies and strengths of competitors. 4. Development and protection of the brand, its values and business principles. 5. Extension of the Group’s activities into new business or geographic areas 2. Nomination Governance Committee To ensure that appropriate procedures are in place for the nomination, selection, training and evaluation of directors and for succession plans, with due regard for the benefits of diversity on the Board, including gender. Terms of Reference 1. To receive a bi-annual Company Chairmans report on board structure, size, diversity (including gender), composition and succession needs, keeping under review the balance of membership between executive and non-executive and the required blend of skills, experience, knowledge and independence on the Board. 2. To ensure the Group’s governance facilitates efficient,  effective and entrepreneurial management that can deliver shareholder value over the longer term. To review any departures from the UK Corporate Governance Code and explanations to shareholders as to how our actual practices are consistent with good governance. 3. To keep under review the leadership and succession needs of the organization with a view to ensuring the long term success of the Group. 4. To formally propose new executive and non-executive directors for the approval of the whole Board, following a formal, rigorous and transparent procedure for such an appointment. 5. To ensure that all directors undergo an appropriate induction program and to consider any training requirements for the Board as a whole. 6. To ensure that Board Committee membership is refreshed and that undue reliance is not placed on particular individuals when deciding chair/membership of committees. 3. Audit Committee Monitors the integrity of the financial statements and reviews effectiveness of internal controls, risk management and audit. Role The Committee assists the Board in fulfilling its oversight responsibilities. Its primary functions are: To monitor the integrity of the financial statements of the Company and any formal announcements relating to the Company’s financial performance, reviewing significant financial reporting judgments contained in them. To review the Company’s internal financial controls and the systems of internal control and risk management. To maintain an appropriate relationship with the Company’s auditors and to review the independence objectivity and effectiveness of the audit process, taking account of the relevant professional and regulatory requirements. To perform his or her role effectively, each Committee member will obtain an understanding of the detailed responsibilities of Committee membership as well as the Companys business, operations and risk. The Committee can obtain its own independent professional advice as necessary. Audit Process 1. To provide an open avenue of communication between the external auditors, the internal auditors and the Board, meeting separately with both at least annually without management. 2. To keep under review the scope and results of the audit and its cost effectiveness and to report periodically to the  Board on significant findings. 3. To meet, as required, with the external auditors, the internal auditors and management in separate executive sessions to discuss any matters that the Committee or these groups believe should be discussed privately with the Audit Committee. External Auditors 1. To recommend to the Board, for annual shareholder approval, the appointment, re-appointment and removal of the external auditors, and to lead the process of putting the external audit contract out to tender, if appropriate, at least every ten years. 2. To assess their qualifications, expertise, resources, effectiveness, independence and objectivity and to review the auditor’s quality control procedures and steps taken by the auditors to respond to changes in regulatory or other requirements. 3. To approve the terms of engagement and the remuneration to be paid to the external auditors in respect of audit services provided. To review the nature and extent of non-audit work undertaken by the external auditors. In some cases the nature of advice may make it more timely and cost-effective to select them. They may also be appointed for consultancy work but only after rigorous checks to confirm they are the best provider including competitive tender and does not impair the external auditor’s independence. To confirm that the Committee approval process for non-audit fees has operated for the period under review. 4. To review with the Chief Finance Officer and the external auditors the scope and results of the external audit and any significant findings reported to the Committee in the management letter, receiving updates from management on action taken. Internal Auditors 1. To ensure that the internal audit and risk department is adequately resourced and continues to have appropriate standing within the Company, and to keep under review its members’ independence and objectivity. 2. To review with the external auditors and Head of Internal Audit and Risk, the internal audit program and any significant findings, including fraud, illegal acts, deficiencies in internal control or similar issues and review management’s responsiveness to the auditors findings and recommendations. 3. To monitor and review the effectiveness of the internal audit and risk function. 4. Remuneration Committee Recommends remuneration strategy and framework to recruit, retain and reward senior executives for their individual performance. Role To recommend to the Board the senior remuneration strategy and framework, giving due regard to the financial and commercial health of the Company and to ensure the Chairman, Chief Executive , executive directors and senior management, (currently together comprising Reward Levels H and G) are fairly rewarded for their individual contributions to the Company’s overall performance. Terms of Reference 1. To determine and agree with the Board, and taking such external advice as necessary, the appropriate policy for rewarding the Company’s Chairman, Chief Executive, executive directors and senior management. 2. To establish the selection criteria, selecting, appointing and setting terms of reference for any remuneration consultants who advise the Committee. 3. On behalf of the Board to prepare, and to place before shareholders at each annual general meeting, a report setting out the Company’s policy and disclosure on senior remuneration as required by the Directors Remuneration Report Regulations 2002 and other associated legislative or regulatory requirements. 4. To determine for each annual general meeting any aspect of remuneration policy should be brought to shareholders that requires their specific approval, eg share schemes, in addition to the remuneration report which will be submitted to shareholders annually for general approval. 5. To undertake appropriate discussions as necessary with institutional investors on policy or any other aspects of senior remuneration. 6. Annually to review and update its terms of reference, recommending any changes to the board and to evaluate its own membership and performance on a regular basis. * The remuneration of non-executive directors is determined by the Chairman and Chief Executive together with the executive directors. 5. Governance Group Supports colleagues by providing governance support and oversight that is meaningful, relevant and focused on ensuring the business is doing the right things the right way both in the UK and overseas. The Governance Group  engages across the business and comprises legal, audit and risk, insurance, archive, pensions, employee representative and secretariat, reporting on its activities regularly to the Board in the Group Secretary’s report. Giving guidance to colleagues on doing the right thing, the right way including ethics’ code: 1. Implementing practical and cost-effective responses to legislation and regulation. 2. Reviewing and making our policies and practices more accessible. 3. Minimizing trading disruption and legislative consequences. 4. Leveraging business initiatives and sharing best practice. 5. Negotiating contractual terms and protecting our brands and innovation. 6. Providing assurance on internal controls and visibility of key risks. 7. Minimizing insurance premiums, claims and fines. 8. Protecting and promoting our brand heritage. 9. Enabling the Company to meet its pension liabilities. 10. Assisting employee and shareholder engagement. 11. Supporting directors in their Board and Committee roles. Operational Governance 6. Executive Board Accountable for running the business, making sure we are doing the right thing day-to-day and delivering the Group’s strategy. It allocates capital and controls all non-property investments with a risk of material impact on financial results, brand or strategy. It keeps the Board regularly informed about the business and how we work with our different stakeholders. Its work is supported by a number of operational committees and functions. The EB exists to run the business and deliver the Group’s strategy as approved by the Group plc (public limited company) Board: To develop and review strategic opportunities and initiatives for the Group; to evaluate the Group’s competitive position and determine strategies to protect MS, its sub-brands, values and business principles and to consider the impact on key stakeholders; To manage the day to day business, responding to market conditions and trends with appropriate plans for pricing and promotions; To agree and deliver the Group’s financial and operational plans and forecasts; and to deliver these plans and monitor performance against the Group plan, financial forecasts and quarterly revisions; To act as the authorizing  Board for all non-property expenditure (including non-retail property investments e.g. warehousing) subject to the authority set out below. To recommend to the Group Board all expenditure in excess of this authority; To regularly monitor performance against pre-determined criteria to ensure non-property investments deliver required returns; To monitor the Group’s business processes systems and controls; To identify, evaluate, monitor and manage the Group’s risks (including financial, commercial, information security, HWDB, ethics and compliance, business continuity, fire, health and safety) to enhance the Group’s performance and its assets; To review leadership development and succession across the Group; to review HR strategy, including reward framework, employee bonus (excluding those determined by the Remuneration Committee), conditions of employment and pension schemes and people matters; To drive overall Group performance through setting and tracking their own clear objectives which are cascaded throughout the Group and changing ways of working; To review and update annually its terms of reference, recommending any changes to the Group Board and to evaluate its own membership and performance on a regular basis. 7. Management Committee To monitor the development of the Group’s work streams against the Group’s three year plan and to safeguard cross-functional co-operation of the work streams: to input to the Group’s strategic plan on an annual basis ; to cascade the relevant information to the business ; members of the management committee may be asked to present updates to the management committee to keep everyone informed 8. Property Board The property board ensures capital expenditure is allocated to the Group’s UK and International property portfolio (including Retail Property, Head Office Buildings and Core Investment) in line with the Group’s strategic goals and business priorities, whilst also ensuring maximum flexibility: To recommend to the Executive/Group Board the allocation of the property capital expenditure plan and the relevant investment policies on a three year cycle. To approve and control all UK property expenditure (including Retail Property, Head Office Buildings and Core Investment), projects, and programs  on a three year cycle, within delegated authority limits from the Group Board. To approve all International property expenditure (including Retail Property, Head Office Buildings and Core Investment) relating to joint ventures and wholly owned subsidiaries within delegated authority limits from the Group Board. To regularly monitor performance of all UK and International stores against pre-determined criteria to ensure property investments deliver required returns. To identify, evaluate and manage risks relating to property investment expenditure. To review and update annually its terms of reference, recommending any changes to the Executive Board and Group Board and to evaluate its own membership and performance on a regular basis. 9. Customer Insight Unit Influences decision-making by tracking marketplace trends, our customer barometer and customer views. The customer insight unit ensures customers to gain a real understanding of what they want, what they think and how they behave. The customer insight unit is vital in ensuring that our customers’ needs are recognized in any decision taken by the business. 10. How We Do Business Committee To ensure that ‘How we do business’ is an integral part of the business and the way it operates. Terms of Reference Its primary function is to oversee implementation of Plan A, the Company’s ‘eco plan’ launched in January 2007 which sets out 100 commitments across the challenges of Climate change, Waste, Sustainable raw materials, Fair partner and Health: 1. To provide leadership on HWDB across the business. 2. To ensure all parts of the business: †¢ Have assigned clear roles and responsibilities for delivering Plan A †¢ Have a resourced project plan for delivering all aspects of Plan A †¢ Report on progress in implementing Plan A on a regular basis †¢ Have robust data and evidence to support progress claims †¢ Gain the external assurance levels agreed by the Audit Committee †¢ Benchmark themselves against their competitors †¢ Understand stakeholder expectations on HWDB issues (customers, employees, shareholders, opinion formers) †¢ Have the resources and skills to implement the plan †¢ Are maximizing the communication potential of the issues they are managing. 3. To seek external stakeholder views on our overall performance and maintain an overview of external benchmarking and commentary on our performance. 4. To oversee any internal and external auditing of our performance. 5. To oversee external reporting on our performance and progress against our Plan A targets. 6. To provide the Board with an overview of the social, environmental and ethical impacts of the Group’s activities and how they are being managed. 7. To review and update annually its terms of reference, recommending any changes to the Board and to evaluate its own membership and performance on a regular basis. 11. Business Involvement Groups Every store and every business area has BIG representatives, elected by their colleagues to represent their views. Through the business involvement group network, the business informs, involves and consults employees so their views can be influence business change and decision-making. Commitment to BIG means that MS colleagues have the chance to voice their opinions and ideas, get answers and have their views represented when the business considers changes that affect them. This means they all have an opportunity to positively influence the business they are work in. 12. Fire, Health, and Safety Committee Promotes the safety and well being of our employees, customers and visitors and minimizes the risk of financial penalties. 13. Business Continuity Committee Role The Committee will keep under review the effective management of business continuity across the Marks Spencer Group with the objective being to galvanize the development and maintenance of effective means to continue business in the event of a significant interruption to business. It will provide leadership on BC policy across the Group and will ensure that the Policy is integrated into every aspect of the Group’s critical operations  around the world.

Motivation Skills Development Plan for Nursing

Motivation Skills Development Plan for Nursing Qi-Cai Liu Leadership has been described as a relational process in which an individual seeks to influence others towards a mutually desirable goal. (RNAO, 2013). To be an effective leader, the person must be able to create a compelling vision, build up a group, inspire and motivate the group to engage and achieve that vision (Mind Tools, 2015a). Nursing is a discipline which combines the scientific caring and political action (CNA, 2009). Nursing leadership plays an essential role in the nurses life. It influences the healthy outcome of the patients, nurses, organizations, and even the health system. According to the College of Nurses of Ontario (CNO, 2002), each nurse, across all domains, needs to demonstrate leadership in her/his nursing professional practice by providing and advocating the best service to the client/public. Registered nurses at the entry-level are required to have the ability or skills to build up a trust relationship with the clients and colleagues, to create a safe pract ice environment, to develop the knowledge in nursing science, and to balance the conflict values and priorities (CNO, 2014). Therefore, all the nurses need to start their leadership development during their education process. As a nursing student, I also plan to develop my leadership skills to meet the requirement from the CNO professional standards. There are two surveys,which are well designed to assess the leadership skills and motivations, are available at Mind Tools website (2015b). To identify my current leadership skills, I completed these two surveys and the results are shown in the appendix A and B. This paper is trying to analyze the two survey results and then to identify the strengths and weakness of my leadership, and then create a plan to improve my leadership skills within my current acute care clinical practice by applying the transformational leadership practices. Survey Results Analysis According to the leadership standard (CNO, 2002), nursing leadership requires many personal characteristics and skills, such as respect, relationship, trust, self-knowledge, learning, communication, integrity. To assess my leadership abilities, I completed two well-designed online surveys (Mind Tools, 2015b). One is How Good are Your Leadership Skills and one is Leadership Motivation Assessment. The survey results are shown in the appendix A and B. For the survey of How good are your leadership skills? there are 18 statements which are designed to assess the personal characteristics and transformational leadership. I got a score of 58 out of 90 (See appendix A), which implies that my current overall leadership is at medium level and there are many areas I need to improve. Personal characteristics refer to the traits of a leader, such as the respect, trust, self-confidence, empathy, positive attitude, honesty, outlook, and emotional intelligence. Personal characteristics are the important part of the leadership. It influences the success or failure of leadership. In the survey, the personal characteristic part includes three components: self-confidence, positive attitude and outlook, and emotional intelligence. The survey designers think that the self-confidence and positive attitude are the two key fundaments for leadership, as they believe that people like to be friends with the person with high self-confidence, and the person with a positive attitude is also easier to inspire and motivate the surround people. The survey designers also think the emotional intelligence is important for the leader to build up interpersonal relationships, which contributes to the leadership. I got a score of 7 out of 10 in all those three components, which indicates that I already have certain personal characteristic strengths. However, there are still some spaces need to improve. For examples, my self-confidence will fluctuate according to my abilities to perform certain things. I may have a negative attitude in a helpless situation. I may bring my personal emotion into the workplace when I lost control of it. To be an effective nursing leader in the future, I need to strength these leadership related personal characteristics, as well as those didnt include in the survey. Transformational leadership refers to a process leadership style that the leader identifies the requirement of change, creates a vision, delivers the vision to the team, and inspires the team to execute the change (Wikipedia, 2015a). Transformational leadership is one dominating theory in the nursing leadership practice and research (Hutchinson and Jackson, 2013). In the survey of How good are your leadership skills? the transformational leadership part consists five components (Mind Tools, 2015c): providing a compelling vision of the future, motivating people to deliver the vision, being a good role model, managing performance effectively, and providing support and stimulation. I got a score of 7 out of 10 in the components of being a good role model and managing performance effectively, which indicates that I will be able to present myself as an example for the followers and manage performance by setting up clear rules or expected targets. I got a score of 13 out 20 in the componen t of providing support and stimulation, which implies there are more spaces to improve my ability of stimulating the followers and my competency of providing support during the facilitating process. I usually think people need to very smart to stimulate other people, otherwise it will be very hard. For the component of providing a compelling vision of the future, I got a score of 6 out of 10, which indicates I am not good at providing a good vision. That is certainly true as I thought it is too hard or complicate to make a plan for the future as there are so many unpredictable changes would occur. However, I just learned that a good leader is able to adapt to the changing of the environment during the progress. Therefore, I need to develop this ability from now. I only got a score 4 out of 10 in the component of the motivating people to deliver the vision, which is the worst score over the all parts of the survey. However, it showed out the truth that I am not good at to motivate so meone else to deliver the vision. To be a good leader, it is not only required to create and deliver a vision, but also required to be able to motivate other people to help him/her to deliver the vision. Thus, I need to put more effort to improve this ability in the future nursing practice. For the second survey of The leadership motivation assessment(Mind Tools, 2015d), there are 14 statements which are designed to assess the motivation to lead. I got a score of 51 out of 70 (See appendix B), which implies that my current motivation to lead is at medium level and needs to improve. I always think that lead other people do something is the most challenging task. If people dont have good leadership skills, they will feel very stressful as the majority of their lead attempts will be not succeed. Based on this thinking, my motivation to be a leader is not very high. I am like to communicate with and build up positive relationships with other people. I am also like to participate group activities, and contribute my ideas to them. It is fine for me to help other people to fix the problems. However, when it comes to motivating some people to do something, I am not very confident with that. I do not like to face the frustration when receiving the refuse. I also do not know how to deal with those people who are hard to be motivated. As a result, I usually like to cooperate with other people rather than to lead or motivate them. However, as a nursing student, I am required to develop my leadership competencies to meet the professional standards (CNO, 2002). Therefore, it is the time for me to promote my leadership motivation. Based on the above analysis, I identified some my leadership strengths, which including: self-confidence, positive attitude and outlook, emotional intelligence, being a good role model, managing performance effectively. However, to be a good leader, I think these areas still need to further develop in the future practice. Besides that, I also found my weaknesses to be a leader, which including: providing a compelling vision of the future, motivating people to deliver the vision, providing support, as well as increasing motivation to lead. I need to start now to put some effort to improve these weaknesses. Motivation Skills Development Plan As mentioned above, leadership is one of the seven nursing professional standards (CNO, 2002). Therefore, as a nursing student, I need to cultivate my leadership competencies and develop my leadership skills from now. Based on the two surveys, I identified several weaknesses in my leadership, such as providing a compelling vision of the future, motivating people to deliver the vision, providing support, as well as increasing motivation to lead. I think all of those areas are deserve to improve as they are the important components of leadership. However, in contrast with others, I think the skill of motivating people to deliver the vision is very urgent for me to improve as I only got a score of 4 out of 10 in the first survey. Here, I am trying to set up a plan to develop motivating skills during my current acute care clinical practice. As mentioned above, the main barrier for me to motivate other people is that I dont know how to motivate them, and I lack some skills. Therefore, the goal of this plan is to identify some strategies and develop my motivating competency through applying them in the clinical practice. After reviewing some literature articles, I find the following three strategies are helpful for the development. My first strategy is to set up effective visions in the clinical practice. According to the Mind Tools (2015e), setting up a clear and achievable vision is essential to build up a motivating environment. There is no motivation if there is no vision. The ambiguous and immeasurable vision will increase the challenge to motivate. An achievable and challenging vision will make people feel more important and valuable, and result in easier to motivate. Therefore, to improve motivating ability, I need to develop my ability for providing an effective vision, which is also one of my leadership weaknesses from the survey result. To achieve that, I plan to take the following tactics in the clinical practice. First, I will try to design some effective visions or goals which relate to the acute nursing care. According to Mind Tools (2015e), an effective goal should have the features of specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, time (SMART). I will make sure each goal can meet these five feature s after designing. For example, during the patient discharge education, I will create a SMART goal like this: patient will state that he knew how to use the leg bag catheter before the discharge. Second, I will ensure each goal is consistent. According to the Mind Tools (2015e), if a goal is inconsistent with the persons long term goals, it will cause the person confusion and go to the wrong directions. Therefore, in the clinical practice, I will assess each proposed goal to see whether it matches the patients long term goals. For example, if I provide a goal which is not consistent with the patients other goals, it will be every hard or even impossible to motivate this patient to achieve it. Third, I will put some challenge in the goal. According to the Mind Tools (2015e), people usually work harder if you put more expects of them. If a goal is too simple and too easy to achieve, people may not be motivated to do it as it doesnt have any challenge. People are like to perform import ant, valuable changes. For example, if I set a goal to motivate other nursing students to increase their communication times with their patients during each shift, the nursing students may think it is too simple to do. Therefore, putting challenge in the goal will increase the possibility for motivation. In summary, I believe my competency in providing effective visions will be improved if I can persistently apply the above three tactics in the clinical practice. My second strategy to improve the motivating skill is to build trust relationships with the patients, nurse staffs, instructor, and other nursing students during the clinical practice. As we know, having a trust relationship is the foundation to motivate other people in the leadership practice, and trust can bring out the best in each individual (RNAO, 2013). Therefore, I need to learn some trust relationship building skills to improve my motivating ability. To build up and maintain a trust relationship throughout the clinical practice, I plan to take the following tactics which are the recommendations from the Best Practice Guideline (RNAO, 2013). First, I will show my care, respect, and concerns. I will recognize and respect the different values and beliefs without judgement and criticism. When providing nursing care to the patient, I will respect the patient autonomy decision. I will show my empathy and provide nursing care to the patients for their illness. Second, I will demonst rate integrity and fairness during the practice. I will openly share my values and beliefs to the patients and other nursing students. I will increase the culturally sensitive during the practice. I will set up clear performance standards to make sure the fairness during the nursing care. If I made a mistake by accident, I will admit it and take the responsibility. I will also keep the commitments during the nursing care. For example, if I said to the patient that I will come back to see him/her soon, I will implement it. Otherwise, I will lose the trust of this patient. Third, I will demonstrate the role competency and promote the teamwork. I will apply the medical and pharmacological knowledge, as well as the relationship and leadership knowledge during the practice. I will promote my collaborative relationship with other health work providers. I will give assistance to the other nursing students when they needed. I will also receive and acknowledge the helps from other nursing st udents and nurse staffs in the unit. In summary, I will be able to build up a trust relationship based on the above three tactics. However, it may be harder to maintain a trust relationship than building it. There are so many factors can cause the losing of trust, such as the inconsistency between the actions and says, seeking for the personal interesting, lie, and withhold information (RNAO, 2013). Therefore, I need to put more efforts on that during the clinical practice. My third strategy to improve my motivating ability is to identify the differences between individuals. To achieve the goal of motivating, rigid techniques should be avoided as each individual has his/her specific features. According to the Hersey Blanchard situational leadership theory (Wikipedia, 2015b), there are four mature level of the followers: M1, M2, M3, and M4. The M1 followers are lacking specific skills and are unwilling to make changes. The M2 followers are lacking specific skills, but are willing to make changes. The M3 followers are experienced, but unwilling to make changes. The M4 followers are experienced and willing to make changes. As a result, different motivation skills should be adapted according to the followers maturity level. For example, when I am trying to motivate a patient to make some healthy behavior changes, I will firstly identify the maturity level of this patient by assessing his/her willingness and capacity. If the patient has the willingness and c apacity, I may just need to tell him/her to make the change. If the patient has willingnesses but not has capacity, I may need to find out the tools to help her/him build up the capacity. If the patient doesnt have willingness but has capacity, I may need to focus on the strategies of motivation, such as assisting the patient to identify and overcome the barriers. If the patient does not have the both willingness and capacity, it will be more challenge as I am not only need to motivate but also need to help build up the capacity. In this way, I will be able to use different techniques to motivate people according to their characteristics. By applying the above three strategies in my current acute care clinical practice, I anticipate to improve my competencies of setting up compelling visions, building up trust relationship, and identifying the differences between individuals in clinical. As a result, I will increase my ability of motivation at the end. During this process, I will also be able to evaluate the ethical and legal nursing care standards in the current acute care unit when I am designing the compelling vision. I will learn how to evaluate the professional standards and guidelines and apply them in the clinical practice. For example, I learned the strategies of building up trust relationship from the Best Practice Guideline (RNAO, 2013), and I will use this knowledge to build up the trust relationship in the clinical practice. I will learn how to analysis the leadership theories and use them to lead the change during nursing practice. For example, I will use the Hersey Blanchard situational leadership theory to assess the maturity level of each individual. After obtaining some motivation competencies, I will try to practice little leadership among the nursing student group. References Registered Nurses Association of Ontario (RNAO). (2013). Healthy work environments best practice guidelines: Developing and sustaining nursing leadership. Retrieved from http://rnao.ca/bpg/guidelines/developing-and-sustaining-nursing-leadership. Mind Tools. (2015a). What is leadership? Retrieved from: http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_41.htm. Mind Tools. (2015b). Leadership skills: Become an exceptional leader. Retrieved from: http://www.mindtools.com/pages/main/newMN_LDR.htm. Mind Tools. (2015c). How good are your leadership skills? Retrieved from: http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_50.htm. Mind Tools. (2015d). The leadership motivation assessment: How motivated are you to lead? Retrieved from: http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_01.htm. Mind Tools. (2015e). How good are your motivation skills? Retrieved from: http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMM_67.htm. Canadian Nurse Association (CNA). (2009). Position Statement: Nursing leadership. Retrieved from http://www.cna-aiic.ca/~/media/cna/page-content/pdf-en/nursing-leadership_position-statement.pdf?la=en. College of Nurses of Ontario (CNO). (2002). Professional Standards: Leadership. Retrieved from http://www.cno.org/Global/docs/prac/41006_ProfStds.pdf. College of Nurses of Ontario (CNO). (2014). Competencies for entry-level Registered Nurse Practice. Retrieved from: http://www.cno.org/Global/docs/reg/41037_EntryToPracitic_ final.pdf?epslanguage=en. Wikipedia. (2015a). Transformational leadership. Retrieved from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformational_leadership Wikipedia. (2015b). Situational leadership theory. Retrieved from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Situational_leadership_theory Hutchison, M. Jackson, D. (2013). Transformational leadership in nursing: towards a more critical interpretation. Nursing Inquiry, 20 (1), 11–22. doi DOI: 10.1111/nin.12006.

Concepts of Gender and Mathematics

Concepts of Gender and Mathematics Introduction In 1896 Charles Darwin wrote â€Å"The chief distinction in the intellectual powers of the two sexes is shewn by the mans attaining to a higher eminence, in whatever he takes up, than can women†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.if men are capable of a decided pre-eminence over women in many subjects the average mental power of a man must be above that of women.† (Darwin see Walkerdine, 1989, p. 1) After many years of social change we would expect these views on women to have changed. Indeed, it is not common to hear that, mentally, men are better than women, as women have proved themselves to be just as capable. Take Carol Vorderman for example, in my opinion the most famous female mathematician that I know. She is so good at mental arithmetic that she co-hosted Countdown for 26 years (Vorderman, WWW). However, maths is still perceived as a male dominated subject and it is no wonder that women believe they are inferior to men at mathematics. Even though this myth is meant to be a statistical statement, many women interpret it to mean they cannot do mathematics, having a distressing effect on individuals (Gray, 1996, p. 27). Walkerdine states that â€Å"Women, after all, are clearly irrational, illogical and too close to their emotions to be good at mathematics. Or so the story goes.† (Walkerdine, 1989, p. 1) If certain people actually take on this opinion; that girls are ‘lacking in mathematical ability (Walkerdine, 1989), how are girls supposed to have the confidence to believe they can do mathematics, when â€Å"girls report less confidence in their mathematical ability even when the girls achieve at the same level of boys†? (Fennema see Orlich et al, 2007, p. 52). It is suggested in Burton (1990) that boys are getting more encouragement and praise in the classroom than girls, which builds a lack of confidence causing a negative effect on the girls ability to learn (Burton, 1990). In this essay I will try and address the biological reasoning behind why girls cant do maths and relate this to the ways in which girls learn. The Biology There are two hemispheres to the brain, the left and right. These are specialised, to some extent, to perform different tasks. People usually have a preference to one or the other, although certain people are â€Å"whole brained† in their thinking, and therefore work just as well in either (Funderstanding, WWW). Abigail Norfleet James (2009) has researched into brain differences in boys and girls. She found that language functions and the memory of certain nouns are lateralized to the left hemisphere, whereas mathematical performance and memory of pictures and topography are lateralized to the right hemisphere. Not only did she find differences in the left and right brain, she also researched into certain parts of the brain which help us to learn mathematics using memory and emotions (Norfleet James, 2009). The hippocampus, located inside the medial temporal lobe, plays an important part in long term memory and spatial navigation (Hippocampus, WWW). The Amygdala, which is also found deep in the medial temporal lobe, performs a primary role in the processing of memory and emotional reactions (Amygdala, WWW). The research showed that as the hippocampus and the left side of the brain develops faster in girls, they excel in language, verbalising and working through situations logically. The righ t side of the brain and the Amygdala develops faster in boys, so their mathematical calculations and performance are prominent in their learning (Norfleet James, 2009). â€Å"To oversimplify a complex issue, the left hemisphere in most humans is primarily concerned with language based behaviour and with the cognitive skills we might crudely characterize as analytical or logical. It has become apparent recently that the right hemisphere is far superior to the left in most visual and spatial abilities† (Davies and Hersh, 1995, p. 346) If we look at certain traits from the opposite sides of the brain, we can see that the left brain is notorious for being analytical and sequential, rational and thinking objectively where as the right side is identified with spatial intelligence, thinking randomly and using an intuitive approach to situations (Funderstanding, WWW). Research suggests that the male brain holds an advantage with making quick decisions from lists where as the female brain works inductively and needs much more information to make that same decision (Gurian et al, 2001). It can be said therefore, that women are more inclined to think in a left brained way and men, a right brained way. As a result of this boys tend to have significantly better spatial skills and find visualizing abstract objects easier. When it comes to learning maths we need to use the whole brain; the left and right hemispheres and the frontal lobe (Gurian et al, 2001, p. 51). Primary and Secondary Schools tend to have more female than male teachers (Statistics, WWW). In my opinion, female teachers are more likely to teach using the traits found in the left side of the brain as this is what they naturally excel at. This could possibly be seen as the preferred way of teaching as the traits linked to the right side of the brain are usually connected with impulsive actions and general disruption in class (Gurian et al, 2001). In schools, students are taught to think in a successive way, where they build on previous knowledge. They are taught logical steps, which gives a method they then apply to a question to gain an answer. If, however, the student comes across a problem they have not faced before, they may lack the intuitive skills that would allow them to solve this particular, difficult problem. This method of teaching is sometimes seen as being biased towards the female way of learning, as it develops the skills which girls are already, naturally gifted with. However, to study maths to a higher level, rules and methods can only get you so far. The right hand side of the brain allows you to look at problems as a â€Å"whole† rather than in individual, single steps. As boys naturally develop this part of their brains, they are already able to think subjectively (to relate their problems to personal experiences or previous challenges they have faced), a skill girls have to learn. Thus, with the schooling system developing the boys left hemispheres, they are capable of answering much more difficult, unseen questions, which may require more than just the taught rules. Girls are generally left brained and are therefore disadvantaged, as they are educated to think in one way, their right hemisphere being overlooked. The right brained boys, however, are taught these left brained skills, and coupled with their natural way of thinking allows them to be â€Å" whole brained† and much more efficient at the more difficult maths problems. (Fennema Leder, 1990; Gurian et al, 2001; Norfleet James, 2009) If schools are focusing on a certain method which disadvantages either girls or boys in ways of their brain functions, are they also biased in the way they are teaching, with regards to how boys and girls learn? Learning Styles Along with having a stronger side of the brain, girls are also inclined to use their minds in a specific way. This is usually related to the way they think. Research has shown that there are two types of reasoning; abstract and concrete. Abstract is â€Å"not seeing or touching the thing and yet still being able to calculate it. For example, when mathematics is taught on a blackboard, boys often do better at it than girls.† (Gurian et al, 2001, p. 45). If information was to be taken from the blackboard and put onto, for instance, number lines, which are inevitably more concrete, girls tend to thrive. For girls to understand the more abstract parts of maths, for example geometry, they must bring these aspects to life. In Primary School learning, the idea of Logo (a computerised turtle which moves round the screen following directions) makes the abstract ideas of direction and angles become more concrete. In fact many IT programs used in the classroom have been designed to give a concrete illustration of an abstract idea (Skrimshaw, 1993). Furthermore, people have a predisposition to relate to a particular learning strategy. It has been suggested that girls tend to conform to the serialist, or analytic, model of thinking (Clark and Millard, 1998). These are â€Å"one step at a time learners† (Scott-Hodgetts, 1986, p. 68) who work through problems methodically, leading to instrumental understanding. In an article on the different types of understanding, Skemp (1976) described instrumental as ‘rules without reasons. What he did not realise was, â€Å"that for many the possession of such a rule and the ability to use it, is what they mean by ‘understanding† (Skemp, 1976, p. 2). Aside from serialistic understanding we have the holistic, or intuitive, model of thinking. Scott-Hodgetts claimed that holists like to take â€Å"an exploratory way, working first towards an understanding of an overall framework† (Scott-Hodgetts, 1986, p. 68). The approach that holists take of looking at the whole framework and then filling in the gaps is a way of relational understanding, not only knowing which method works, but why. So although it may take longer for a pupil to become a relational learner, as there is more content, it is never the less, easier, for the holist thinker to then adapt this method and apply it to unknown problems (Skemp, 1976). This is seen as the preferable method to learning as it allows students to link together different concepts of mathematics. Research shows that boys coincide with this manner of thinking (Clark and Millard, 1998). A lucky few tend to be able to switch between both the holist and the serialist approach. These students are called versatile learners. In higher level mathematics it becomes very important to be able to switch your view point, from looking at a problem analytically to globally, in order to see the problem as a whole. â€Å" pupils are expected to do more than simply reproduce items of knowledge, as they have been taught. They must, for example, also be able to restructure bodies of knowledge in ways appropriate to different problems a difficult task for the serialists because of their inclination to learn sequentially, without necessarily forming an overall picture of the relationships involved. whilst holists are busy speculating about relationships, and discovering the connections between initially disjoint areas of mathematics, it may not even occur to serialists to begin to look for such links.† (Scott-Hodgetts, 1986, p. 73) If you are capable therefore of using both of these techniques then surely you gain great advantage over your fellow workers? There are a few issues regarding these learning strategies. In Primary schools, students should have â€Å"the freedom to develop their ideas using their preferred learning strategies, however, teachers do sometimes impose their own strategies upon pupils† (Scott-Hodgetts, 1986, p. 70). I believe at such a young age, it is easier for the teacher to teach rules and for the pupil to learn these, even if they have no understanding of them. Take long multiplication for example. I was taught a step by step procedure which gave me an answer. At this age I had very little idea about why we added a zero at the end of the second line of computation, or why we ‘carried a one; I was just told that is how it is done. This method of learning, remembering and applying, confirms to serialists that this approach is best and leads to success. Even in Secondary school it is known that â€Å"teacher exposition tends to be serialistic in style† (Scott-Hodgetts, 1986, p. 70), Scott-Hodgetts (1986) claims that children who are predisposed to a serialist approach are less likely to become versatile learners than those who think more holistically, purely because of the way that they have been taught (Scott-Hodgetts, 1986). However, it has been discovered that if serialists are exposed to a holistic style of teaching they are just as capable of gaining the same understanding, at the time, as the holists. Although, Pask and Scott, claim that in the long term, such teaching has a â€Å"genuine effect on reducing efficiency†(Pask and Scott see Scott-Hodgetts, 1986, p.72). This inconsistency of teaching styles could explain why certain pupils are capable of working well in class, but then not performing well in mathematics examinations. (Scott-Hodgetts, 1986) At the same time that serialists are convincing themselves that learning and remembering their method is the way to gain the top grades, holistic learners will be shown the effectiveness of a different strategy. They have then begun to be a versatile learner before they reach secondary education. Conclusion After looking at the brain and the mind in relation to learning mathematics, I feel that it is not that girls cannot do maths, on the contrary girls have many skills that would make them adept at the subject, it is more that girls are not taught the right techniques, which would broaden their minds when it comes to tackling harder mathematical problems. I believe that if girls were taught in a holistic way they would, like the boys, learn how to look at problems as a whole and become more proficient at their mathematics. However, as Pask and Scott (see Scott-Hodgetts, 1986) pointed out, mixing learning techniques can become a disadvantage in the long run to the serialistic learners. But if Holists are able to learn from a serialistic point of view, why cant serialist learn from a holistic point of view? Surely this would increase the number of versatile learners? Drawing on my own experiences as a woman, if I look at the skills I have developed to reach my current level in mathematics, I know that I have needed to be analytical in most of the problems I have encountered, as well as being able to observe the problem in full. Surprisingly, being able to think randomly as well as logically can sometimes help to solve the most difficult problems. Evidence shows that even though boys are more naturally intuitive and seem to have many of the skills needed in progressing in mathematics, girls are analytical and sequential which are evidently needed for mathematics. The natural abilities that most girls seem to inherit are the key components when first learning maths. It is only the boys ability to understand this new way of learning, which automatically makes them versatile learners, that gives them the edge over girls. Being able to look at problems analytically and form an algorithm to obtain an answer is vital to any problem solving subject, and therefore it is easy to see why girls can enjoy, and can be good at mathematics. We can see from the following statistics that boys excel when the maths becomes more complicated. In Teresa Smarts article on Gender and Maths in England and Wales she explains that even though there are fewer boys than girls taking GCSE mathematics, more boys continue maths on to A-Level. Only 35% of pupils taking A-Level in 1992 were girls, which shows that the percentage of girls studying mathematics decreases as the level of mathematics increases (Smart, T. 1996). This reiterates that girls can do maths; they are just not taught the necessary skills which are needed to continue the subject to A-Level or even university. However, in researching this topic I found that it is not only our brain or the way we learn which causes us to think we, as girls, are not capable at maths, but also society and the perception they have on girls and mathematics. Until recently girls have very much been considered for different jobs than boys. Careers advice to girls in the fifth form in the 1980s was based on â€Å"retail and clerical types of employment† (Burton, 1986). If girls were adamant that they wanted to study what was considered to be a more male subject, they were expected to achieve higher grades or in some cases, not considered for the jobs at all. In fact, one fifth form girl, in which the section of Burtons book is written, was told by her interviewer that he discouraged women from taking opportunities which would better their career (taking day-release) as they â€Å"tend to leave and have babies† (Burton, 1986). In todays job market women are considered equal to men, however, I feel, it will take a few years before we see equal numbers of women and men in male dominated occupations. It is also important to point out that the content of this essay relates to the general assumption of boys and girls. I know myself, that after extensive research I would consider myself to be a holistic thinker, contrary to what the research suggests I should be as a girl. Does this mean that those female students who study university mathematics and indeed go further, think in a more male way, or are they just fortunate enough to have become versatile learners despite what they have been taught at school? The statement; Girls cant do Maths: Myth or Fact, could be argued to be both myth and fact. We have seen that girls are less likely to be better at maths biologically but if our teaching system was different would we gain different results?

The Rosenbaum House :: essays papers

The Rosenbaum House The 1920’s and the 1930’s were extremely important times in architectural society. During this time, not only was architecture changing, but also society. The automobile was becoming popular among households, cities were booming, and urbanization was in full effect. This was a key time for advancement in the architectural world. At this time, now famous architects, such as Frank Lloyd Wright, Mies van der Rohe, Walter Gropius and Le Corbusier started what is now known as the Modernist Movement. Today this Modernist Movement and these architects have shaped how we look at and define architecture. Of these architects, Frank Lloyd Wright is among some of my favorites. In 1939, Wright designed a house known as the Rosenbaum house, which at the time was completely against what architecture was. But, although different to the norm, this house was revolutionizing what architecture would be. I liked Wright’s designs and architecture better than the others because of many aspects. Wright deleted the attics and basements out of his homes, the living areas were more spacious and open, and the exterior is really brought into the interior. His ideas are more functional for my particular lifestyle, and the ascetics are much more pleasing than the desires of the other houses. While Le Corbusier was trying to tackle the problems of housing costs and trying to make a design for mass production, he left out the uniqueness and the ascetics of what Wright has accomplished. I did not like the box-like model of Corbusier’s design because it holds no particular style to some other houses he had designed. Another aspect of Corbusier’s design was that his designs were made primarily for mass production and inexpense, but they are not customized to the individual needs and desires of its inhabitants, which I do not believe in. I do not like van der Rohe’s house because the concepts he incorporated were designed for commercial use, such as offices in his high-rise structures. His less is more concept is a very strong architectural idea that is still very prominent today, yet I do not like my homes to show its framework and be completely open to its surroundings. I do not believe van der Rohe incorporates public and private spaces in his designs. Wright’s ideas were perfect for the society at the time of design.

Comparing HG Wells The Time Machine and Mark Twains Connecticut Yankee :: Mark Twain Connecticut Yankee

Comparing HG Wells' The Time Machine and Mark Twain's Connecticut Yankee Connecticut Yankee was written in 1889 by Mark Twain. A man is taken from 19th century America and taken to 6th century England. Using his wits He is quickly able to put himself in a position of rank in the court of Camelot. He then introduces many modern inventions and ideas to the society in an attempt to bring it to what was considered the â€Å"right† way in the 19th Century. This shows how much influence a single man can have in the society around him. There is also a conflict of ideas in this book that leads to his eventual downfall and return to the 19th century. Throughout literature and history there have been many instances where a single man and his idea and beliefs have changed the course of events and shaped a society around his individual beliefs. These men have shaped history and the worlds that they live in. Connecticut Yankee is a prime example of such a man in a world, where his ideas cause a dramatic change. Hank Morgan was pulled from his world and taken to one that is a total opposite of his. Seeing that he cannot return to his world he then tries to transform Camelot to the world he remembers, 19th century America. Morgan enters a world of slavery, poverty, and control of the masses by a few select people. This world is completely different than what he is accustomed to and what he believes. He is in a world of superstition and lies. He uses his knowledge of a solar eclipse and plays it like if he where making the sun disappear. This gets him the position of Head wizard and second only in command to the king himself and it saves him from burning at the stake. The Camelot that Twain places Hank Morgan is a complete opposite to the world he comes from. He views them as a pack of uneducated fools and savages. This situation is much like that of the Time Traveler in H.G. Wells the Time Machine. Instead of going back in time he goes forward in time where the Eloi and the Morlocks, different races of people, are thrown back to primitive conditions. He talks to Eloi and sees them as little children who the Morlocks exploit for food and labor.